LITTLE BLUE BOOK NO. 481 
Edited by E. Haldeman-Juliua 


The Stone Age 

CLEMENT WOOD 


HALDEMAN-JULIUS COMPANY 
GIRARD, KANSAS 










LITTLE BLUE BOOK NO. 481 
Edited by E. Ilaldeman-Julius 

v 

The Stone Age 

Clement Wood 


HALDEMAN-JULIUS COMPANY 
GIRARD, KANSAS 


/ 






Copyright, 1923, 
Haldeman-Julius Company. 


JAN -8 *24 

i 

©Cl A 7 729? 5 

( 


THE STONE AGE 





THE STONE AGE • 


CHAPTER I 


THE RECORD OF THE ROCKS 

A few days ago, I was walking down the 
long field back of my house in Hastings-on 
Hudson with J. Otis Swift, the naturalist. He 
stooped and picked up an odd-shaped fragment 
of quartz. “You could write a volume,” he ob¬ 
served, “about that stone. Long ago, in all 
probability, it appeared either in granite, a 
primal stone out of the warm crust of the earth, 
or as one of the vast mineral group of silicates. 
The slow seasons weathered it, water took it 
in solution, and it was deposited afresh as 
quartz in the cavities of some old basic igneous 
rock. The action of sea or river rounded it to 
this large pebble; these scratches may have 
been made by the glacier that once scratched 
the top of the Palisades yonder. But these 
chipped places—here, and here—these were 
made by the hand of man. The Indians, any¬ 
where from five hundred to fifty thousand 
years ago, chipped off the flakes and made of 
it a hammer stone, to shape their stone weapons 
and implements. You could write a volume 
about that stone.” 

And this monument of the slow fashioning 
of fire and weather, water, ice, and man, is 
now a simple field stone, trodden under foot 
by the careless passerby! I have handled 


6 THE STONE AGE 

more than five hundred of these worked Indian 
stones, in the fields within four miles of my 
house. 

We often think of stones as worthless things, 
unless perhaps as material for building. Yet 
they are the skeleton that holds the earth to¬ 
gether. In the old Greek myth of the flood, 
Deucalion was told to throw the bones of His 
mother behind him; and he rightly interpreted 
this as meaning stones, the bones of Mother 
Earth. Much of man’s achievement is graven 
on the stones: from the ancient wordless ruins 
of Stonehenge to the great pyramids, from the 
masterpieces of architecture and sculpture to 
the stone writings of Egypt, Babylon, and the 
nearest cemetery. The hearthstone com¬ 
memorates the earliest home, the millstone an 
early industry. From a rock smitten by Moses* 
hand water gushed for the thirsty wanderers; 
from a stone flung by the sling of David death 
came to the giant foe of Israel. Commercial 
products of the stone range from the salt that 
seasons each meal to the precious metals and 
the more precious stones called gems. Lastly, 
the observant men called scientists show us how 
to read stones like a printed book, in order to 
understand the early history of the lifeless 
earth, the beginnings of life upon it, and the 
forgotten days of the awkward ape-like ances¬ 
tors of man, and of the earliest man himself. 

We do not know how old the earth is, or even 
how old the earliest rocks are. Estimates by 
geologists and astronomers, based upon pains¬ 
taking study, vary between 3,000,000,000 and 
25,000,000 years. Carroll Lane Fenton, in “The 


THE STONE AGE 


Building of the Earth” (No. 275) in this series 
of books, has chosen the conservative figure of 
800,000,000 years. In any case, the time occu¬ 
pied by man and his immediate ancestors, the 
apemen, hardly exceeded one sixteen-hundredth 
of this, or 500,000 years. A table may mak« 
this clearer: 


GEOLOCIC TIME TABLE 


8 


THE STONE AGE 


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THE STONE AGE 


9 


Man's immediate ancestors emerge from the 
vast geologic history of the earth at the end of 
the Pliocene and the beginning of the Pleisto¬ 
cene, the Ice or Glacial Age, immediately fol¬ 
lowing. In this, as in all of the tables, the 
order is stratigraphic, or following the strata 
of the rocks. Thus the most recent age is at 
the top, the oldest at the bottom. The Glacial 
Age, which reached from 475,000 to perhaps 
50,000 years ago, was supposed, until recently 
to consist of one great advance and retreat of 
the ice-fields from various centers. The last 
forty years has established that there were at 
least four chief glacial periods, with three inter¬ 
glacial periods, each with its corresponding cold 
and warm climates. The terraces on either bank 
of such European rivers as the River Inn, in 
Austria; the Rhine above Basle, Switzerland, 
and the Thames, near London, establish a dif¬ 
ferent type of deposit for each glacial period, 
with different and advancing forms of animal 
life and human remains. The successive cover¬ 
ings of loam and earth, which washed down 
from the original sand and gravel terraces left 
by the glaciers, indicate the same series of 
glacial and interglacial periods. This loam was 
retransported in the form of dust by the winds 
and laid down afresh in layers of varying thick¬ 
ness known as “loess,” a process that still con¬ 
tinues in certain districts; this points to the 
same succession of glacial and interglacial 
epochs. Finally, the different types of human rel¬ 
ics and remains found in the limestone shelters 
and caverns of Europe point to the same succes¬ 
sion of divisions of the Ice Aere. The time since 
the Pliocene may thus be divided as follows: 


RECENT GEOLOGIC TIME TABLE 


10 


THE STONE AGE 


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glacial 
1st Glacial 

475,000 Pliocen* Eolithic Ape-man ( Pithecan- 

thropos erectus ) 


THE STONE AGE 


11 


Thera is a common belief that primitive man 
had to contend with the dinosaurs and ptero¬ 
dactyls of the Great Reptile Age, the Mesozoic. 
As the first table indicates, this is entirely in 
error. These reptiles disappeared suddenly 
from the earth millions of years before the first 
ape-man appeared. The earliest mammal, a di¬ 
rect transition from the reptile, may have 
hastened the disappearance of the great saurians 
by his habit of feeding upon the eggs of the 
reptiles. Much later came the earliest ape-man; 
he was contemporaneous with the hairy mam¬ 
moth, the sabre-tooth tiger, and the rhinoceros 
—unpleasant enough neighbors. When it came 
to these monsters, he was less a hunter than 
the hunted; when he took to the chase, it was 
after much smaller game. 

Science has discovered many facts about the 
immediate ancestors of man, and the earliest 
men. Yet all that has been discovered is but 
a fraction of what is contained in the Record 
of the Rocks. A few isolated spots on the 
earth’s surface have been examined; how much 
of the surface has not even been scratched! 
Localities in France, England, Germany, parts 
of Spain, the United States, Java, and elsewhere, 
have been examined with some care; but there 
are thousands of miles in these countries where 
secrets are unrevealed. Whole continents have 
been hardly touched; South America, Africa, 
even Asia, perhaps the land in which the races 
of men originated, are still to be searched. And 
if all the remains hidden today were uncovered, 
we would have only a small fraction of the 
story of the ancient life. Of one race we have 


12 


THE STONE AGE 


found only two teeth, a thigh bone, and the 
top of a skull; of another, we have only one 
jaw. Why are there not more fragments? Cer¬ 
tain of man’s ancestors were perhaps tree- 
dwellers; these leave few remains.* Their bones 
are light, brittle, easily destructible; they were 
crushed dn a fall, consumed by beasts, or de¬ 
cayed and disappeared with the dead leaves and 
wood of the early forests. The apemen and the 
first men were ground dwellers, hiding among 
trees and, especially, rocks. It is not such crea¬ 
tures that the Geological Record preserves, as a 
rule; that record holds chiefly traces of water 
or marsh creatures, or creatures easily and. fre¬ 
quently drowned. When early man, during the 
harsh Ice Age, took to the caves, he left more 
traces of his stay. More than this, it has been 
only seventy years that such prehistoric hu¬ 
man fossils have been found; the Gibraltar skull 
of the Neanderthal race, found in 1848, was 
practically the first of the long series. Seventy 
years is not a long period, in which to read the 
mysteries of five hundred thousand years. We 
will learn much more in the future. 

If the remains of bones are scanty, there is 
another record of the rocks that yields more: 
the stone implements of man. Some scientists 
hold that wooden implements came first, and 
shell implements second; whether these pre¬ 
ceded the use of stones as tools, or came with 
them, wood and shell have decayed and dis¬ 
appeared. But tools of flint, agate and quartz 
may not decay in a million years; and men 
have found every stage of implement widely 
scattered over the earth. The important thing 


THE STONE AGE 


13 


always is to trace the stages in the development 
of man—not the exact date when he reached 
these stages. With different localities, the rate 
of progress differs enormously. Today, the 
-white races are in the age of the radio and the 
airplane; backward races still use stone imple¬ 
ments; South Sea Islanders and certain African 
Negroes and bushmen still make use of wood 
and the sharp-edged shells of land and water 
molluscs as tools. W hen Europe was in the — 
age of Shakespeare ‘ancf Elizabeth, the' twin 
continents of America were largely in the Stone 
Age. But the order of development, as revealed 
by the tools, is always similar. There was first 
a period whose tool remains cannot be identi¬ 
fied: because the stones and wooden clubs 
were used without any shaping changes. Then 
came the Eolithic Age, or dawn sto ne age; 
scientists are still disputing 'its remaiiis. - Tn)e 
tools of this age, called eoliths, have only the 
rudest working. After this came the Paleo¬ 
lithic, or Old j Stone Age—the age of chipped 
stone. ThisT varTes'Trotrr'the crudest flaking to 
the exquisite laurel-leaf pattern of the So- 
lutrean stage of tool-making (named from the 
implement station of Solutre, near the Saone 
River, in France). This Old Stone Age is the 
period, stretching over more than a hundred 
thousand years, that we will study here. Next 
came the Noolithi c, or NewL S tone Are—the ag e — 
of polishe d stone, f After this came the Bronze 
Age,” arid^then the Iron Age, blending into the 
Steel Age. We are still in the last-named 
period. It is convenient to remember these 
thus: 








14 


THE STONE AGE 


THE AGES OF TOOL CULTURE 

Iron, and later Steel, Age. 

Bronze Age. 

Neolithic (New Stone) Age, of polished stones. 

Paleolithic (Old Stone) Age, of chipped stones. 

Eolithic (Dawn Stone) Age, of stones slightly 
chipped. 

It is now time to answer the questions, who 
were the immediate ancestors of men, and what 
can we find out about them. 

CHAPTER II 
THE APE-MEN 

It is not correct to say that man is descended 
from any form of monkey or ape now alive 
upon the globe. Both the anthropoid or man* 
’’&> and men > are descended from a com¬ 
mon ancestry, now extinct. There are four of 
these man-like apes upon the earth today: the 
gibbon and the orang-outang, in Asia, and the 
chimpanzee and the gorilla, in Africa. But near 
the beginning of the Cenozoic or Recent Life 
Period, in that stage known as the Oligocene, 
we find skeletal remains of a forerunner of the 
great apes, resembling the gibbons, in the 
deserts of northern Egypt. In the Miocene 
Stage which followed, true tree-living gibbons 
found their way into Europe and continued 
throughout the Pliocene, the stage preceding 
the Ice Age; these ranged as far north as Ger¬ 
many. Another ape, quite man-like, called the 
Dryopithecus, inhabited France in the Miocene; 
it was closely related to the ancestral stock of 


THE STONE AGE 


15 


the chimpanzee, gorilla, and orang, with a 
jaw remotely like the dawn man, or Piltdown 
Man, found in Sussex, England. The Pliocene 
saw a third great ape dwelling in Germany, 
and the Old Ape, or Paleopithecus, inhabiting 
the Siwalik hills of Asia. This creature was 
a generalized form apparently related to chim¬ 
panzee, gibbon and baboon, with upper teeth 
resembling man’s. 

T^ie four existing man-like apes are all tree- 
dwellers, with long arms especially adapted to 
arboreal life. In all these apes there is a grasp¬ 
ing power in the big toe, which is a kind of 
thumb; in man this is a function of the hand 
alone. The opposable thumb, which may be 
brought against each of the fingers, is the one 
characteristic lacking in every one of the man¬ 
like apes, and which was early developed among 
the ancestors of man. They had projecting 
faces, retreating foreheads, and small brain- 
cases, compared to men; in his slow develop¬ 
ment man’s face has become vertical, his nose 
prominent, his forehead high, his brain-case 
large. In brain evolution, the tree life of man’s 
early ancestors or cousins stimulated the de¬ 
velopment of the hind and side portions of the 
brain, which control the muscular movements 
needed for arboreal existence. All the man- 
apes have some power of walking more or less 
erect on the hind limbs, thus releasing the arms. 
There were four chief lines of development: 

(1) the erect attitude; 

(2) the opposable thumb; 

(3) the growth of the front of the brain; and 

(4) the acquisition of the power of speech. 


16 THE STONE AGE 

In late pliocene times the ancestor of man, 
In all probability a ground ape, a running crea¬ 
ture rathe^ than a climbing creature, had 
achieved the first three of these, and had a 
rudimentary power of speech. Then came the 
first Glacial approach, and after thousands of 
years the first Interglacial period. Scientists 
disagree as to whether the first recognizable 
stone implements, the eoliths, came before or 
after the first Glacial approach; but about this 
time came these first evidences of man’s imme¬ 
diate ancestors upon the earth. 

Among the early popularizers of the eoliths 
was a man named Benjamin Harrison, a grocer, 
of Ightham, in Kent, England. In a great 
gravel bed five to seven feet deep he found, 
among unmistakable paleoliths, or chipped 
stones, hundreds of stones only slightly worked, 
with a similarity of appearance which could 
hardly be accidental. In Belgium and else- 
were many other eoliths have been found; I 
have picked up in the field below my house in 
Hastings-on-Hudson stones of exactly the same 
type. Whether these Kent or Belgium exam¬ 
ples are the work of man or of nature is not 
the most important thing; the thing to remem¬ 
ber is that the paleoliths or chipped stones were 
not originated all at once; there must have been 
thousands of years of experiment before these 
forms could be reached. These may not be 
recognizable to the satisfaction of science; but 
they undoubtedly existed. Eoliths have been 
found near the Sussex home of the early Pilt- 
down man, and in Prance. These are of the 
borer form, the. hollow-scraper form, and the 


THE STONE AGE 


17 


crescent-shaped-scraper form. They are usually 
rolled and water-worn. Nature has dulled their 
once keen edge, as she has dulled human recol¬ 
lection of their ancient users. 

Who were the man-like forms that fashioned 
and used these earliest recognizable tools? 
Remember what was said about the infrequency 
of relics of these early men. We must travel 
far away to find the pre-human type which must 
have used similar tools. 

The island of Java is separated from Asia 
by Sumatra and Borneo, and by water. Geology 
has established that it was once a part of the 
Asiatic mainland. In 1891, on the Bengawan 
River^ in central Java, a Dutch army surgeon, 
Eugen Dubois, while excavating for pre-human 
remains, discovered near Trinil a deposit of 
numerous mammal bones, a single upper molar 
tooth, and, a short distance away, the top of 
a skull. Further digging revealed a second 
.olar tooth and a left thigh bone, all imbedded 
and fossilized in similar fashion. In 1894 
Dubois described these scattered parts as the 
remains of the type of Pithecanthropos erectus, 
the erect ape-man. The erectus was determined 
by the thigh-bone, which demonstrated that the 
creature had the same upright posture as man, 
and walked on two legs. The creature was 
clearly not simian, or monkey; it was closer 
to man than to the highest man-like ape. And 
yet it was not man. It was the transitional 
form between man and the man-like apes, which 
the laws of evolution had taught us must have 
once existed. It was the ancestor of man. It 
was one of the missing links. 


18 


THE STONE AGE 


The geologists at once became busy. At first 
they were inclined to place the creature in the 
late Mesozoic (Middle Life), also called Tertiary 
(Third Stage), in the period Pliocene; but later 
researches indicate that the true age is more 
probably Pleistocene, or the beginning of the 
Ice Age, in the Cenozoic (Recent Life), also 
called Quarternary (Fourth Stage). The mam¬ 
mal bones included a primate or monkey called 
macaque; two species of the rhinoceros; and 
three late Pliocene elephants,—the same ele¬ 
phants found in the Siwalik hills of India, in 
earlier Pliocene deposits. The discovery of a 
race similar to Pithecanthropos, the Ape-man, 
in India, may be anticipated. The Trinil race 
may therefore be set down as late Pliocene or 
early Pleistocene, as just before or during the 
opening of the Ice Age. 

Judging from the length of the thigh bone, 
the Trinils were a tall race, reaching a height 
of 5 feet 7 inches, a few inches higher than 
the later Neanderthal race. The forehead is un¬ 
developed, the frontal area of) the brain is 
small; thus the Trinil Ape-men had only a 
limited faculty of profiting by experience and 
accumulated tradition. The industry of the 
Trinil race was very elementary. The tools re¬ 
quired were simple, and natural flakes and 
fragments of flint were plentiful. Hammer and 
knife were the original tools; both were picked 
up ready-made, or were rudely chipped. When 
the edge of the flake become dulled by use, the 
piece was thrown away, or the edge was re¬ 
touched for further use. If hammer or flake 
could not be held comfortably in the hand, the 


THE STONE AGE 


19 


troublesome points or edges were removed or 
reduced by chipping. The stock of tools in¬ 
creased slowly, with the growing needs. Arti¬ 
ficial flakes were produced at last, to supple¬ 
ment the diminishing stock of natural ones. 
Definite types of implements were at length 
evolved, which led readily into the simplest 
forms of the paleoliths, or chipped stones. It is 
fairly definite that the Trinil race were in 
the Eolithic culture, using several weapons of 
wood and stone. 

Periods of glaciation are periods of subsidence 
of the land; the second glacial period, which 
came next, was by far the greatest of all four. 
The glacier withdrew after many thousands of 
years, the land was elevated again, and a new 
race appeared upon the scene. In 1907, Schoe- 
tensack discovered in the Mauer sands near 
Heidelberg, Germany, a single jaw, which has 
been named as belonging to the Heidelberg 
man. Along with this pre-human jaw were 
discovered remains of the ancient elephant, a 
rhinoceros, a wild horse, a primitive ox or 
aurochs, and many other mammalian forms. 
The presence of the elephant indicates a com¬ 
paratively moist and well-forested country. The 
solitary jaw indicates the human occupancy. 

This Heidelberg jaw is one of the most im¬ 
portant finds in the whole history of anthro¬ 
pology. It contains features never before found 
in fossil or recent man. There is no evidence 
of chin at all. The teeth establish that it was 
not the jaw of an ape, but of a human form. 
The teeth are not large, in proportion to the 
jaw; but the jaw is the most powerful jaw ever 


20 


THE STONE AGE 


known, even greater than the largest Eskimo 
jaw. It indicates a skull of very massive and 
primitive character. The space left for the 
tongue is not large; this may have interfered 
seriously with the free use of the tongue for 
articulate speech. 

The Heidelberg man is apparently a low form 
of the Neanderthal race, that is, a Neanderthal 
in the making. The Heidelberg teeth are ar¬ 
ranged in a perfect arch, or horseshoe arrange¬ 
ment; in all the apes, the grinding teeth are 
almost parallel with each other. This estab¬ 
lishes it as another of the missing links. We 
know little of the habits of this ape-man. Fu¬ 
ture excavations may tell more of his story. 
All that we are sure of is that, during the sec¬ 
ond interglacial period, this race of subhumans 
roamed Europe. 

Then came the third glaciation. After thou¬ 
sands of years, the ice retreated, and a new 
race appeared upon the human stage. 

CHAPTER III 
THE DAWN MEN 

The best scientific estimates agree that the 
third warm interglacial stage opened about 
100,000 years ago, and lasted between 50,000 
and 60,000 years. It must be remembered, 
however, that the eolithic industry may have 
commenced more than a hundred thousand 
years before this. The borders of one river, 
the River Somme at St. Acheul, France, give 
us a vista of the whole story of the succession 


THE STONE AGE 21 

of geologic events, from the eolithic culture 
through the whole Old Stone Age to the neo- 
liths, or polished stones. The animal life dur¬ 
ing this • period, as indicated by the remains, 
included the mammoth, the rhinoceros, the 
hippopotamus, a primitive horse, the sabre¬ 
tooth tiger, elephants, and many lesser species. 
This animal life is associated with eoliths, with 
the next stage of stone industry, called pre- 
Chellean, and with some later Chellean chipped 
implements. 

The pre-Chellean differs from the pure eo¬ 
liths in that it included stones for weapons, 
as well as stones for tools or implements. It 
is to be noted that there are three methods of 
concurrent chronology, depending upon the 
kind of evidence. The purely geologic evi¬ 
dence gives us the age by the geologic changes, 
such as the glaciers, and the accompanying ani¬ 
mal remains; the human skeletal remains give 
us the successive pre-human and human races; 
while the implements give us the successive 
stages of industry or culture, such as the eo¬ 
lithic, pre-Chellean, etc. In the pre-Chellean, 
there is no longer any question of human 
handiwork; these stones were shaped by men 
or submen. It is possible that these primitive 
flint-workers entered Europe by way of the 
northern coast of Africa, which was united to 
Europe by two land bridges, one at Gibraltar 
and the other by way of Sicily to Italy. The 
stone remains are restricted to Spain, France, 
Belgium, and Great Britain. None are found 
in Germany or central Europe. Thus it is clear 
that this race did not enter directly from the 


22 


THE STONE AGE 


east. The best stations are discovered along 
the rivers Somme and Seine. The eoliths found 
in connection with the Piltdown flint workers, 
or Dawn Men, were typical eoliths, and not as 
advanced as the real pre-Chellean. At this 
time the flint workers, from the specimens dis¬ 
covered, were not designing the shapes of their 
implements and weapons; they were utilizing 
the natural shapes of the flakes and stones. 
In the industry, a second stage had been 
reached. There was first the use of the stone 
hammer, to make the sharpened edge; now 
came, in addition, the retouch, with a second 
stone, which further sharpened the implement 
by knocking off small chips on alternate sides 
of the cutting edge, giving it a saw-like effect. 
This retouching further made the stone usable, 
by blunting any sharp edges which might injure 
the hand of the user. Often the smooth, water- 
worn end of the flint was preserved for this 
purpose. The name of these typical stones is 
hand-stone, or the French coup de poing. 

Among the types of implements and weap¬ 
ons are the following: the planing tool, the 
scraper, the borer, the knife, the hammer-stone, 
the throwing-stone, and the hand-stone or coup 
de poing. 

The user of many of these implements was 
discovered at Piltdown, in Sussex, England. 
•This lies between two branches of the River 
Ouse, west of Kent, in which many eoliths 
have been found. The discoverer, Dawson, 
places the age of the remains as during the 
first half of the Pleistocene, or Ice Age. About 
1911, two portions of a skull were found here. 


THE STONE AGE 23 

Careful search revealed a broken jaw, a tooth, 
two nose bones, and other sections of the skull; 
all of these were fossilized. Nearby were Plio¬ 
cene mammals, such as the mastodon, the mam¬ 
moth, and the hippopotamus ; in the same heap 
from which the Piltdown skull was taken were 
found portions of a .rhinoceros, hippopotamus, 
beaver, and deer. There was also found a sin¬ 
gle flint, worked on one side, of a very primi¬ 
tive or pre-Chellean type. 

This indicates that the Piltdown man, who 
has been named Eoanthropos or dawn man, be¬ 
longed to the period before the true Chellean. 
The skull is much less like the apes than any 
previously discovered. The nose was flattened, 
resembling in this some of the existing Malay 
and African races. The chin was extremely 
receding; the teeth are relatively longer and 
narrower than those in the modern human jaw. 
The face projected forward; the teeth may be 
called ape-like. Ape-like chin, parallel grind¬ 
ing teeth, narrow human lower molar teeth, 
steep forehead, practically no brow ridges 
(such as the later Neanderthal race possessed) 
—this was the dawn man. The authorities are 
inclined to the opinion that the race may have 
existed at about the same time as the Heidel¬ 
berg man. But the Heidelberg man was prob¬ 
ably an ancestor of the Neanderthal race, which 
largely disappeared later; while the Piltdown 
man was a probable ancester of the recent 
species of Homo sapiens, to which we belong. 
Some, it is true, hold that the Piltdown jaw 
does not belong to the Piltdown skull; but 
in any case it is clear that the Piltdown man 


24 THE STONE AGE. 

was either a direct ancestor of the modern hu¬ 
man, or a near side-branch. 

Out of the eoliths and the later pre-Chellean 
implements came that stage of human indus¬ 
try called Hie true Chellean. These workers 
improved the older types of implements, and 
invented new ones. The flint worker was still 
largely dependent upon the natural shape of 
the shattered fragment of flint; he had not 
yet learned to shape it symmetrically. Half a 
dozen definite varieties of the hand-stone or 
coup de poing can be distinguished; De Mor- 
tillet speaks of this as the only tool of the Chel¬ 
lean tribes, used for all the purposes of axe, 
chisel, saw, and awl—an early combination tool. 
The pointed form was undoubtedly used as a 
dagger, both in war and in the chase. 

There was plenty of game to chase, even 
if the larger mammals had still to be avoided. 
Roaming Europe at this period were the South¬ 
ern mammoth, the hippopotamus, the straight- 
tusked elephant, the broad-nosed rhinoceros, 
the hyena, lion, and bison. The hyena now 
found is the spotted one, which had replaced 
the older striped hyena; the lion has taken 
the place of the great sabre-tooth tiger. Red 
deer and giant deer crashed through the brush; 
the brown bear appears for the first time; there 
are varieties of wild horses, and a primitive 
species of wolf. Some of these the Chellean 
men hunted; among their regular prey were 
badgers, martens, otters, beavers, and still 
smaller mammals. 

In all the continents, except Australia, we 
find stone implements similar, in their main 


THE STONE AGE 


25 


outline, to the Chellean; but there are always 
minor differences. This indicates that the de¬ 
velopment was probably a natural one occur¬ 
ring to primitive man widely scattered, rather 
than that the Chellean culture spread over the 
world. 

It is noteworthy that not a single pre-Chel- 
lean or Chellean station has been found in 
Germany, Switzerland, or the rest of central 
Europe. But the next stage, the Acheulean, 
is found throughout tliese regions. During 
Chellean times this land might have been un¬ 
favorable for human habitation; or the traces 
of man’s occupancy might have been washed 
away, or may be still undiscovered. The Rhine, 
the Danube, even north Germany, exhibit 
traces . of the next period. In general, the 
Acheulean flint workers, like the Chellean, pre¬ 
ferred open country to caves and grottoes. Up 
to this time man has been largely an •utdoor 
dweller. But a noteworthy exception to this 
is found in the great grotto of Castillo, near 
Puente Viesgo, in Santandar, northern Spain. 
This cavern was filled with deposits to the 
depth of 45 feet, from the floor to the roof; 
Obermaier, who first explored these deposits 
thoroughly, found here thirteen layers, cover¬ 
ing eleven stages of industry, and presenting 
a natural museum of the history of western 
Europe from Acheulean times to the Age of 
Bronze, in Spain. For fifty thousand or more 
years this great grotto was used, and then 
abandoned, by tribe after tribe. It is a monu¬ 
mental' volume of prehistory, which can be 
read by the archeologist almost as clearly and 


26 


THE STONE AGE 


precisely as if it were in printed type. It is 
in the first period found here, the Acheulean, 
that the first positive evidence of the use of 
fire hy man is found, in the shape of charred 
wood and bones. The discovery of fire has 
been made. Man is on his road to what we 
call progress. 

The Acheiilean stone implements and weap¬ 
ons are increasingly numerous. We find half 
a dozen varieties of the hand-stone, used for 
many purposes; we find choppers, planing 
tools, scrapers, drills, borers, knives, blades, 
and points. For the war and chase there are 
lance-points, throwing stones, knives, and dart 
and spear heads. The core or center of the 
flint is still used for the large typical, instru¬ 
ments; but the flakes are coming into wider 
use in a great variety of forms. Gradually the 
blades grow finer and sharper; they were prob¬ 
ably used for butcher knives for dismembering 
the carcasses of game, and for cutting up the 
skins; other tools were used as scrapers to 
clean the hides, which were finally dressed by 
the aid of the planing tool. The smaller im¬ 
plements are much improved. The knives are 
fine and perfect, although lacking the sym¬ 
metrical shape of later stages. In all prob¬ 
ability, the women of the tribe were the ones 
who dressed the hides. Some of the finer im¬ 
plements were used to split marrow bones, and 
furnish a choice feast. The stone work is a 
great improvement over the crudity of the 
Chellean workers; but it seems rough indeed, 
compared to the work of the Upper Paleolithic 


THE STONE AGE 


27 


age, and rougher still when contrasted with the 
polished stone of the Neolithic Age. 

These first three races, the Ape-man or 
Pithecanthropos erectus, the Heidelberg man, 
and the Piltdown or Dawn Man, have left few 
skeletal remains. We are next to study a race 
about which we can speak with much more cer¬ 
tainty—the Neanderthal Men. 

CHAPTER IV 


THE NEANDERTHAL MEN 

Croatia was a section of Hungary, before 
the World War altered geographical boundaries. 
In the northern portion of this district, near 
the small town of Krapina, in the valley of the 
Krapinica River, is the famous cavern of 
Krapina. Here, in 1899, a discovery of men 
of the Neanderthal race was made. The animal 
remains point to the late Acheulean period; 
there are a rhinoceros, the cave bear, a species 
of horse, and other mammalian remains. When 
the cavern was explored, it was found to con¬ 
tain thousands of animal bones, mingled with 
hundreds of human bones, and hundreds of 
stone implements and chips. In 1906 Gorjano- 
vic-Kramberger published the result of his re¬ 
searches among these remains. He had found 
about three hundred pieces of human bone, 
many well preserved. From these the Neander¬ 
thal race can be reconstructed. 

These men were short-skulled. The race 
was somewhat dwarfed, with a broad head. 


28 THE STONE AGE 

The chin is still retreating. The broken con¬ 
dition of these bones has led some to suggest 
that the Neanderthal men were cannibals. But 
none of the bones were split lengthwise, as 
would have been done to extract the marrow; 
and there is no other evidence of cannibalism 
during the whole Old Stone period. These peo¬ 
ple lived here at the close of the Third Inter¬ 
glacial period, and perhaps during the Fourth 
Glacial period which followed. During this 
time the mammoth disappeared, and then the 
hippopotamus; the rhinoceros and the straight- 
tusked elephant lingered on for a time. The 
Neanderthal races slowly passed from the 
Acheulean industry into that called the Mous- 
terian, which closed the Lower Paleolithic 
Age. This Fourth Glaciation is estimated as 
beginning 40,000 years ago, and ending some 
20,000 years ago. When it is recalled that the 
whole Neolithic period, the Bronze Age, and 
then the Iron and Steel Ages, have only occu¬ 
pied part of the last 20,000 years, and that we 
have some written record of about half of 
this period, it becomes apparent how close in 
point of years the Neanderthal race is to uS. 
Cold tundra animals from the north came in 
to replace the rhinoceros and the straight- 
tusked elephant, in the shape of the woolly 
rhinoceros and the woolly mammoth. Arctic 
trees and plants spread over Europe. This is 
the beginning of the reindeer period. 

In Southern Britain, some unusually inter¬ 
esting remains have been found. At Crayford, 
near the mouth of the Thames, and along the 
Lea, have been found working floors of Mous- 


THE STONE AGE 29 

terian culture, buried beneath four to five feet 
of sand and loam, and resting upon the sur¬ 
face of the older river-gravels. There are spots 
occupied by unabraded stone implements and 
flakes, which obviously lie today just as they 
were left by the Old Stone workmen. At one 
place there is evidence that the flint shaper 
squatted over his work, with his knees slightly 
apart; for the chips are thrown to right and 
left in small piles. 

The discovery of the Neanderthaloid (Nean¬ 
derthal-like) races has extended over about 
seventy years. There is no evidence of burial, 
it is well to remember, in the cases of the 
Trinil, the Heidelberg, and the Piltdown re¬ 
mains; the bones apparently were washed 
down by the river, and mingled with those of 
other mammals. It is possible that the bodies 
of the dead and of the aged were thrown out 
to the scavenger beasts and birds, as some 
African tribes do today. In the Krapina cavern 
there was no evidence of burial, but to the con¬ 
trary there was slight evidence of cannibalism. 
As we get into the Mousterian period, all thisi 
has changed. The custom of burial, or the or¬ 
derly laying out of the remains of the dead in 
the floors of protected caves, came in. The 
colder climate drove this race into the close 
quarters of caves and grottoes; perhaps this 
turned attention to dead bodies, and slowly led 
to forms of burial. This habit has afforded us 
a much fuller knowledge of the race and its 
industry than we were able to obtain of previ¬ 
ous races. 

The first* discovery of a Neanderthaloid was 


30 


THE STONE AGE 


made in 1848. This was near Forbes Quarry, 
on the north face of the Rock of Gibraltar; 
the skull found here is called the Gibraltar 
skull. The brain is extremely small, even for 
this race, and the ridges above the orbits of the 
eyes are only slightly developed. It is regarded 
as a primitive type of this race, probably the 
skull of a female. A female, just as an infant, 
as pointed out in the masterly studies of Les¬ 
ter Ward, is less specialized and closer to the 
race stem than the adult male. In 1856 work¬ 
men clearing out a cave in the valley known 
as the Neanderthal, on the Dussel flowing be¬ 
tween Elberfield and Dusseldorf, discovered 
some human bones, probably an entire skele¬ 
ton. These were carelessly thrown aside; but 
a scientist rescued what he could, including 
the skullcap, both thigh bones, portions of the 
arm, bones of both sides, the right collar bone, 
and fragments of the pelvis, shoulder-blade, 
and ribs. All were well preserved, and are now 
in the museum of Bonn. For forty years sci¬ 
entists argued concerning these remains, with 
wild theories ranging to the classic hypothesis 
that each peculiarity in the skeleton was 
caused by some bone disease. But in 1901 
Schwalbe’s great work gave the skeleton su¬ 
preme importance, as the type of the Neander¬ 
thal race. Since then, there have been more 
than twenty separate discoveries of remains of 
the race, in France, Moravia, Belgium, and on 
the Isle of Jersey. The worked stones accom¬ 
panying them range from the early type found 
in Krapina, Croatia, which are late Acheulean 
or early Mousterian, through the whole Mous- 


THE STONE AGE 


31 


terian period, with half a dozen skeletons ac¬ 
companied by tools of slightly later epochs. 
The two finely preserved skulls and skeletons 
found at Spy, Belgium, in 1887, and the numer¬ 
ous finds since 1908 in the Dordogne region, 
France, were* preludes to the skeleton discov¬ 
ered the same year in a grotto near La Cha- 
pelle-aux-Saintes, nearby to Le Moustier, 
France, which gave its name to the Mousterian 
culture. This was the perfectly preserved 
skeleton of an individual between fifty and 
fifty-five years of age, which had been given 
ceremonial burial. The body was laid out in 
an east and west direction in a small natural 
depression. Even the bones of the face were 
in position; this gave the first opportunity to 
measure the actual size and proportions of the 
brain, with only slight possibility of error. In 
a Mousterian cavern on St. Brelade’s Bay, on 
the Island of Jersey, thirteen human teeth were 
discovered, associated with the bones of the 
woolly rhinoceros, the reindeer, and two types 
of horse, as well as Mousterian hearths and 
stone implements of the same period. This 
long group of more than a score of discoveries, 
commencing in 1848 and multiplying recently, 
gives us a comparatively complete knowledge 
of the bony structure of the men, women, and 
children of the Neanderthal race. We are able 
to state positively the relative brain develop¬ 
ments and heights of the sexes. We know that 
this race, and this race only, inhabited all of 
western Europe during the late Acheulean and 
the whole Mousterian period. From their cus¬ 
tom of ceremonial burial we know that they 


32 


THE STONE AGE 


possessed a reverence for the dead, which may 
have been accompanied by some belief in an 
existence after death. 

It is not difficult to distinguish the features 
of the Neanderthal race, which mark it off 
from previous and subsequent races of men. 
Most noticeable of all were the heavy, over¬ 
hanging brows and the retreating forehead. 
Many recent races have a decided ridge ovei 
the eyes; but in recent races the outer edge 
of this ridge turns upward at the outer line 
of the eyebrows. In the Neanderthal men, to 
the contrary, this ridge surrounds the whole 
upper edge of the eye socket, extending around 
the outside borders of the forehead; this forms 
a regular roof over the eye sockets, which ap¬ 
pear like two deep caverns. Certain living 
Australians exhibit this form of ridge, with¬ 
out other Neanderthal characteristics. 

The face is an exceptionally high one. From 
upper jaw to the line of the eyes it is much 
longer than that of more recent man; this 
suggests the faces of the man-like apes. The 
jaw is less powerful than the Heidelberg jaw; 
but, like it, it is very thick and massive. The 
chin is receding; the Heidelberg man entirely 
lacked a chin. The teeth are more human 
than in the Piltdown or Dawn Man. The skull¬ 
cap is flat, the forehead retreats, the ridges 
above the eyes are prominent, the face is long, 
the cutting teeth are prominent, the chin re¬ 
cedes. There you have the face of the Nean¬ 
derthal man. 

Most of these characteristics may be found 
in certain specimens of the heads of living in- 


THE STONE AGE 33 

ferior races; but all of them are never found in 
any living race. In many ways the Neander¬ 
thal race was closer to the man-like apes than 
to Homo sapiens, or thinking man. The brain 
capacity varied from 1,296 cubic centimeters, 
for the Gibraltar skull, to 1,723 c. cm. for the 
skull known as Spy II, found in Spy, Belgium. 
The left hemisphere of the brain is larger than 
the right, indicating that the race was right- 
handed. Like the man-like apes, the frontal 
portion of the brain is relatively smaller than 
in recent man. As far as height is concerned, 
the Neanderthals were distinctly a short race. 
They ranged from 5 feet 1 inch to 5 feet 5 
inches for the male; the females were approxi¬ 
mately 4 feet 10 inches. 

The head was very large, in proportion to 
the body. The thigh is relatively long, the 
lower leg much shorter than in any existing 
human race. In this respect the Neanderthal 
man had a shorter shinbone, compared to the 
thigh, than even the man-like apes. This indi¬ 
cates that the Neanderthal men were clumsy 
and slow of foot. Similarly the forearm of 
the Neanderthals was very short, distinctly 
shorter than any of the man-like apes. This 
points to the fact that the immediate ancestors 
of the Neanderthals were ground dwellers, 
rather than tree dwellers. To sum up these 
characteristics, the head was large, compared 
to the body; the arm was short, compared to 
the leg; both forearm and lower leg were 
short, compared to upper arm and thighbone 
respectively. The chest and midbody were 
muscular and robust, the shoulders very broad. 


34 


THE STONE AGE 


The hand was extremely large, but the thumb 
was not as fully developed as in recent races. 
There is one invariable feature of the Neander¬ 
thals. The relation of the kneecap to the shin¬ 
bone shows that this bone could not be straight¬ 
ened wholly, but was always bent slightly 
backward. This indicates too that the race 
squatted, instead of sitting. They could not 
stand wholly erect; they were a bent or squat¬ 
ting race. 

The spinal column was short and thick-set; 
the back curved upward into the neck, more as 
in the chimpanzee than as in modern humans. 
This caused a habitual stooping of the Neander¬ 
thal man at the neck and shoulders, and pre¬ 
vented his ever holding his head erect. Legs 
that could not be wholly straightened out, a 
head permanently stooped forward—this squat¬ 
ting race would never appear quite human; it 
would bear resemblance to certain man-like 
apes. 

The position of the Neanderthal race in the 
development of human culture and industry can 
be ascertained best from a table. It should be 
remembered that it is the testimony of the 
stone implements and weapons that determines 
the stage of culture. 

The localities presenting evidence of the 
Mousterian culture, called Mousterian stations, 
are more than fifty in number, and are almcfst 
as many as the Acheulean stations. In England 
we find Kent’s Hole, in Devonshire, where 
among the Mousterian flints were found teeth 
of the sabre-tooth tiger. There were three 
other stations on what was then the mainland 


TABLE OF IMPLEMENT CULTURE 


THE STONE AGE 


35 


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100,000 Chellean 

Pre-Chellean f Piltdown 

{ Heidelberg 

475,000 Eolithic Trinil Ape-man 


36 


THE STONE AGE 


of England, one, on the Island of Jersey, yield¬ 
ing thirteen Neanderthal teeth. In the Dordogne 
region of France are eight sites; Spain, Italy, 
Switzerland, Germany, Austria, Moravia, and 
even Russia have remains indicating that the 
Neanderthal men of the Mousterian culture 
inhabited these scattered localities. At Dew- 
lish, in Dorset, England, an artificial trench 
has been found which is supposed to have been 
a Neanderthal trap for elephants. Usually they 
could not kill such prey; but they undoubtedly 
consumed the wounded or dead bodies of the 
larger mammals, when they could find them. 
Part of the kill they ate where it fell; they 
brought back the big marrow bones to their 
caves, to crack at their leisure. These are al¬ 
most the only mammalian bones found in the 
caves. In addition to these rare feasts on the 
forest monsters, the Neanderthal man’s regu¬ 
lar diet included the hare, the rabbit, and the 
rat—a fare supplemented by nuts, acorns, wild 
fruit and buds, roots, birds’ eggs, young birds, 
honey from wild bees, snails and frogs, fish, 
mussels, seaweed, and even caterpillars. 

Compared to previous cultures, Mousterian 
life was dense and crowded. It centered chief¬ 
ly in caverns and grottoes, located near some 
convenient stream. Primitive man had as yet 
no pots or vessels to transport water. Fire was 
probably made by striking iron pyrites against 
flint, near dried leaves; chips of these tw» 
stones are often found together. The fire was 
probably banked when not needed; it was 
needed most at night, as a protection against 
wild beasts. The herding together must have 


THE STONE AGE 


37 


developed something of tribal tradition, and 
the germs of religious belief, as indicated in 
the ceremonial burials. There is, of course, 
little industrial progress or invention shown in 
the remains. The stone industry is quite dis¬ 
tinct.,, from the Acheulean, although evidently 
descended from it. The change from the free 
and open life of Chellean and early Acheulean 
times to the crowded grottoes and shelters of 
Mousterian times may have had a dwarfing 
effect upon the human beings and their indus¬ 
try. One characteristic of Mousterian flints 
is that they are often retouched on only one 
side, leaving the opposite side smooth, just as 
it had been rounded by natural forces, such as 
water. The Mousterian points and scrapers 
usually have this appearance. The Mousterians 
were the first to make widespread use of the 
flake, instead of the core of the flint; this led 
to the decline of the coup de poing or hand- 
-stone, used in so many ways by the Acheuleans. 
When these hand-stones are found, the work¬ 
manship has degenerated. This implement has 
run its course as a human tool, in the same 
way that the great reptiles and prehistoric 
beasts had largely run their courses; only rude, 
small vestiges remained. The implement had 
its beginning in pre-Chellean times; it reached 
its maturity and perfection, and gradually fell 
into degeneration and final disuse. This oc¬ 
curred when it came into competition with an¬ 
other form of implement, based upon a differ¬ 
ent and superior plan; in the struggle for ex¬ 
istence it gradually disappeared, because of the 
greater usefulness of the replacing type. 


38 


THE STONE AGE 


The use of the bone anvil came in during 
this stage of industry. Many small tools, chief¬ 
ly made of flakes, were developed at the same 
time, most of these being retouched on one 
side only. The industrial implements are the 
degenerating hand-stones, the chopper, t plan- 
ing tool, drill or borer, six varieties of scraper 
—knife-edged, saw-edged, double-edged, etc.— 
the hand-point, and the hammer stone; the 
weapons of war and chase are the hand-point, 
the spear head, the hand-stone, throwing-stone, 
and knife. The planing tool is disappearing; 
the scraper is the tool most used. There are 
very few knives; the drill and the scraper have 
taken their places in industry. 

There is no definite proof of the attachment 
of any of these stones to a shaft or handle; 
there are yet no barbed or headed points. This 
industry gradually blends into the first of the 
Upper Stone Age industries, the Aurignacian. 

For many thousands of years these Neander¬ 
thal men dwelt throughout Europe. This long 
stay must have brought forth a distinct evolu¬ 
tion from lower to higher types, and into nu¬ 
merous varieties. These variations we find in 
the skeletal remains, ranging from the primi¬ 
tive Gibraltar skull and Krapina bones to the 
skeleton Spy II, more like the modern races. 
The height remained fairly constant. As to 
what became of the race, authorities differ. 
Hrdlicka and others hold that they partly 
evolved into the lowest races of Homo sapiens , 
the thinking man, to which moderr* races be¬ 
long; that they contributed to the Brunn and 
other races of the Upper Old Stone Age times. 


THE STONE AGE 


39 


and even Ub the higher race of the Cro-Mag¬ 
nons, which succeeded them. These scientists 
also hold that traces of Neanderthal blood and 
physiognomy are present in some modern Eu¬ 
ropeans. On the other side of the question 
stands H. F. Osborn, the distinguished Amer¬ 
ican anthropologist, and a number of followers. 
These hold that the Neanderthals represent a 
side branch of the human race, which became 
wholly extinct in western Europe. 

The evidence undoubtedly points to a sud¬ 
den racial change, more abrupt than any other 
known, at the end of the Mousterian culture. 
Apparently the Neanderthals disappeared bod¬ 
ily, to be replaced everywhere by the Cro- 
Magnon race. From geological evidence, the 
date of this transition is usually placed at be¬ 
tween 20,000 and 25,000 years before our era. 
No trace of the pure Neanderthals has been 
found in any of the Upper Old Stone Age 
burial places; nor is there definite proof that 
the Neanderthal influence appears in any later 
race. It may have been that, during the rigor 
of the Fourth Glacial Period, the Neanderthals 
were degenerating physically and industrially. 
In any event, toward the end of the Lower Old 
Stone Age a new race entered Europe, a race 
highly superior. Probably the new race com¬ 
peted for a time with the Neanderthals, before 
they drove them out of the country, or killed 
them in battle. The Neanderthals must have 
fought with wooden weapons and with the 
stone-headed dart and spear, but there is no 
evidence that they used the bow and arrow. 
There is a possibility that the newly arrived 


40 THE STONE AGE • 

Cro-Magnon race possessed this superior weap¬ 
on; a barbed arrow or Spear-head appears in 
drawings of a later stage of Cro-Magnon cul¬ 
ture, the Magdalenean. In any case, the Nean¬ 
derthals virtually disappeared. 

We are guided here by the evidence of 
skeletal and stone remains, which in general 
are more trustworthy than early written rec¬ 
ords. Yet these remains depend upon human 
interpretation, which is liable to long error. 
Darwin thus attached no significance to the 
Neanderthal skull, considering that it could 
not have been Pre-Homo sapiens in part be¬ 
cause of its large brain capacity. Written rec¬ 
ords are at least as deceptive. The ancient 
historical writings of the Hebrews state re¬ 
peatedly that all of the primitive inhabitants 
of Canaan were wiped out: “Joshua left none 
remaining; he utterly destroyed all that 
breathed” (Joshua 10:40) sums up the story. 
The group of historical books commencing 
with Judges tells a different story: “And it 
came to pass, after the death of Joshua, that 
the children of Israel asked of Jehovah, say¬ 
ing, Who shall go up for us first against the 
Canaanites, to fight against them? And Je¬ 
hovah said, Judah shall go up_And Jehovah 

was with Judah, and he drove out the inhab¬ 
itants of the hill-country; for he could not 
drive out the inhabitants of the valley, be¬ 
cause they had chariots of iron.” (Judges, 1:1, 
2, 19.) This apparent contradiction is capable 
of simple explanation. In this case, there was 
no central organized government among the 
Canaanites, as far as can 'be ascertained; the 


THE STONE AGE 


41 


first kingdom was established some years after 
the conquest by the victorious Israelites. Ac¬ 
cordingly, even members of the conquered 
race would desire to forget their kinship with 
the conquered, and claim membership with 
the conquerors; until the story became current 
that all of the first inhabitants had been de¬ 
stroyed. 

This errancy of written records does not ap¬ 
ply with equal force to the records of anthropo¬ 
logical remains. At the same time, a caution 
must be observed. It is hardly conceivable 
that the lower race could be entirely destroyed; 
there would in all probability be some inter¬ 
marriage, or some enslavement of the women 
at least of t^he Neanderthals, who would bring 
forth offspring mingling the racial streams. A 
wholesale destruction is only conceivable, if 
there were so much physical difference be¬ 
tween the races that the conquerors could not 
bring themselves to mate with the vanquished. 
We know that the Neanderthals were a squat¬ 
ting race, whose heads were always stooped; 
there is evidence that they were an exces¬ 
sively hairy race. These factors would de¬ 
crease the probability of widespread intermin¬ 
gling. Perhaps a dim racial remembrance of 
this bent, hairy race remains in the ogre of 
folk fairy tales. Some mating must have 
taken place; future excavations may bring to 
light intermediate types, future researches may 
find in living European veins some trace of 
this first race whose widespread occupancy of 
western Europe is shown by the enduring rec¬ 
ord of the stones. 


42 


THE STONE AGE 


CHAPTER V 

THE GRIMALDI OR NEGROID RACE 

The date of the ending of the Neanderthal 
race and the beginning of the Cro-Magnon su¬ 
premacy is the first date that can be given 
with any confidence. Geologists are agreed 
that this, which corresponds roughly with the 
ending of the Fourth Glacial Period and the 
beginning of the present Postglacial time, took 
place about 25,000 years ago. This race came 
in with the Aurignacian culture. The early 
stations of this period are scattered along the 
north and south shores of the Mediterranean 
Sea, and are not found in eastern or central 
Europe. Apparently they came from Asia 
through the land of Phoenicia, part of them 
passing along the northern coast of Africa, 
including Tunis, into Spain; and perhaps part 
along the northern coast of the Mediterranean 
through Italy. Where they came from we can¬ 
not with any certainty state. It was probably 
from somewhere on the continent of Asia; for 
their physical structure is of the Asiatic type, 
and hardly at all of the African or Ethiopian 
type. The reason that we cannot speak with 
definiteness of Asia as their homeland, is that 
this continent has been only slightly explored 
for anthropological remains. At the present 
time several large expeditions are at work in 
Asia, especially in the backlands of Thibet 
north of the Himalayas; it is confidently be- 


THE STONE AGE 


43 


lieved that here, or in northern India, the cen¬ 
tral scattering point of the human race may be 
discovered, with the possibility of the discovery 
of remains of a race closely akin to the Trinil 
Man, the Ape-man of Java. Without this evi¬ 
dence, we can only indicate the probability 
that these Cro-Magnons came from Asia, and 
followed the trail later taken by the true 
Mediterranean race, dark-haired, long-headed, 
narrow-faced people, who followed this coast 
in early Neolithic years, or, again, like the 
wave of Arabian Moslem advance which pushed 
forward along the north coast of Africa into 
Spain and as far as mid-France, more than a 
thousand years ago. 

An additional support to this theory of migra¬ 
tion along the north coast of Africa is given by 
the presence of the skeletons of two members 
of an entirely distinct race, which were found 
in the Grotto of Grimaldi, near Mentone, 
France. These skeletons were found in 1906 by 
Vernau. They are called the negroids of Gri¬ 
maldi, because they are the only Upper Old 
Stone Age race discovered in Europe resem¬ 
bling the African negroid race. Anatomically 
they are not closely related to either the Nean¬ 
derthals or the Cro-Magnons. Their culture 
seems to have been Aurignacian, because their 
skeletal remains were found just above the 
layer which marked the close of Mbusterian 
times. There are nine grottoes of Grimaldi, 
which yielded the remains of sixteen individu¬ 
als, fourteen of which apparently belonged to 
the Cro-Magnon race, and two to the Grimaldi 
negroids. At this time, along this southerly 


44 THE STONE AGE 

shore, the hippopotamus, the straight-tusked 
elephant, and the rhinoceros still roamed, as 
the last members of the great African-Asiatic 
animals. Vernau, the discoverer of the Gri¬ 
maldi negroids, is inclined to regard them as 
of a very ancient race, much older than the 
Cro-Magnons. He believes that they belonged 
to a new racial type which formerly played an 
important role in Europe, and enjoyed wide 
geographic distribution. A professor in Cam¬ 
bridge has recently elaborated this theory, hold¬ 
ing that the negroid race was the first human 
race to separate from the parent stock in 
Asia; that its members divided, part going 
south into Africa, and part more directly west¬ 
ward into Europe, where they scattered wide¬ 
ly and blended into subsequent stocks. There 
is as yet small evidence for this enlarged 
theory. Osborn is one who holds that these 
two skeletons were probably true negroids who 
found their way into Europe from Africa, but 
never became fully established as a race in 
Europe. 

Of the two skeletons found by Vernau, one 
is that of a middle-aged woman; the other that 
of a youth of sixteen or seventeen. Both clearly 
belong to the existing species of man, Homo 
sapiens. In the Grotto of the Infants, in which 
the bodies were found, there is at the bottom 
traces of Mousterian fire-hearths, probably 
used by Neanderthals; above that, the two 
Grimaldi negroids; above and in close proxim¬ 
ity to these, various remains of the Cro-Mag¬ 
non race. The Grimaldi negroids were not a 
tall race, averaging 5 feet 2 inches; this is 


THE STONE AGE 


45 


noticeably shorter than, the Cro-Magnon women 
and youths. There are many negroid character¬ 
istics in the skull, the hip-girdle, and the pro¬ 
portions of the limbs. In common with the man¬ 
like apes, there are found the long forearm, the 
curved thigh-bone, and the marked projection of 
the teeth. The nose is broad and flat, the jaw 
heavy without much chin. Somewhat to the 
contrary implications is the fact that the head 
is long and disharmonic, as are the Cro-Mag¬ 
non heads. By disharmonic is meant that, with 
a long head, the face is short and quite broad. 
The brain capacity is relatively high, being 
estimated at 1,580 c. cm. The forearm and thigh¬ 
bone resemble the man-like apes; the propor¬ 
tions of the leg are similar to the Cro-Magnons. 

Upon the subject, Vernau writes: “The fact 
remains that at a very remote period of the 
Pleistocene there existed in Europe, beside the 
Neanderthal race, a type of man that in many 
of his cephalic (head) characters, in the struc¬ 
ture of his pelvis, and in his limb proportions, 
showed striking analogies to the negro of today. 
In their remarkable proportions they exaggerate 
some of the peculiarities of the recent Negroes; 

• their teeth resemble those of the Australian 
type. There is evidence of the establishment 
and spread of the Grimaldi race throughout 
western Europe, namely, in cases of partial re¬ 
version to this type among the skeletal re¬ 
mains of the Neolithic Age, the Bronze Age, 
and the early Iron Age in Brittany, Switzer¬ 
land, and northern Italy. Extreme prognathism 
(projection of the face) is the characteristic 
that most frequently appears, and in some in- 


46 THE STONE AGE 

stances there is the broad nose, with the same 
osteological peculiarities that mark the Gri¬ 
maldi type. In every instance these individuals 
show dolichocephaly (long-headedness), nearly 
always combined with a short, broad face. Un¬ 
til the discovery of the Grimaldi type we were 
at a loss to explain the existence of these indi¬ 
viduals among a population from which they 
differed so radically.” 

In view of the divergence of the authorities, 
it may be safer to conclude with Keith that the 
Grimaldi people represent an intermediate type 
in the evolution of the typical white and black 
races. The Grimaldi negroids constitute one 
of the great puzzles of anthropology. By the 
ratio of skeletons preserved to probable human 
beings existing, these two bodies indicate that 
a large number of negroids inhabited Europe 
at this period. Whether they were as widely 
spread and as influential as Vernau contends is 
problematical. Future excavations may throw 
further light upon them, even if it be only in a 
negative way. 


/ 


THE STONE AGE 


47 


CHAPTER VI 

THE CRO-MAGNON RACE 

The evidence of the rocks points rather defi¬ 
nitely to a clash between the Cro-Magnons and 
the Neanderthals. There are places, such as the 
valley of the Somme, where early Aurignacian 
retouched stones, probably of Cro-Magnon 
working, appear below a layer of the latest 
Mousterian implements, typical of the Neander¬ 
thals. The same is true of other stations. This 
indicates that the Cro-Magnons held the sta¬ 
tion, temporarily abandoned it to the Neander¬ 
thals and then repossessed themselves of it. 

A brief resume of the history of the stone 
implements will throw light upon the problem. 
Of industrial and domestic implements, the 
Pre-Chellean culture had the planing tool, 
scraper, borer, knife, and hammer stone. The 
Chellean added to these the coup cle poinq , or 
hand-stone, with its varied uses. The Acheulean 
brought this tool to perfection, and added the 
chopper; the Mousterian added nothing, but 
perfected the scraper. In the Upper Old Stone 
Age, chopper and hand-stone disappear; the 
anvil stone comes in, and disappears after the 
Azilian, while the others continue. The Solu- 
trean adds the polisher, the Magdalenean sup¬ 
plements with the lamp and the mortar. This 
is the story in brief of the industrial imple¬ 
ments. 

Of weapons of war and the chase, the Pre- 


48 


THE STONE AGE 


Chellean begins only with the knife. The Chel- 
lean adds the hand-stone as a hand-axe and 
dagger; the Acheulean brings on the throwing- 
stone and the point; these are all appearing in 
the Lower Old Stone Age. In the Upper divi¬ 
sion, the hand-stone disappears, while the 
Aurignacian includes the lance or lance-knife, 
and the lance-head; the Magdalenean for the 
first time shows the arrow point. Only the 
arrow-point and the knife persist in the later 
stages of the Upper Old Stone Age. 

No implements of art, sculpture, or engrav¬ 
ing appear in the lower divisions of the Pale¬ 
olithic. Beginning with the Aurignacian, the 
drill, the chisel, the etching tool, and the 
graver appear, and continue until the end of 
the Old Stone Age. 

Bone implements are not found until the 
Mousterian, when we have the anvil and the 
awl. The Aurignacian brings in bone blades, 
javelin points, spear points, needles, smoothers, 
wedges, chisel, and the ceremonial staff; the 
Solutrean adds the dagger, fishhook, and har¬ 
poon; the Magdalenean has the spear-thrower, 
shuttle, pin and wand. These taper off at the 
end of the Paleolithic. 

One of the chief sources of the change which 
swept over western Europe was in the increased 
brain power of the Cro-Magnons, especially in 
the development of the almost modern fore¬ 
head and forebrain. Their brains were capable 
of ideas, of reasoning, of imagination; they were 
more highly endowed artistically than any un¬ 
civilized race which has ever been discovered. 
The Neanderthals, except in the slow develop- 


THE STONE AGE 49 

ment of symmetry in their implements, seem 
to have lacked the artistic instinct entirely; 
the Cro-Magnon artistic capacity was nearly as 
great as that of the modern races. They were 
apparently capable of advanced education; had 
a developed aesthetic and religious sense; and 
were organized into highly specialized com¬ 
munities. 

One interesting thing about the Europe of 
the Upper Old Stone Age is that there were at 
least five differing races in it at the same 
time. There were, first, the Grimaldi negroids; 
secondly, the Cro-Magnons, noted for their ar¬ 
tistic ability; thirdly, the Brunn race, probably 
entering Europe directly from Asia through 
Hungary; fourthly, a long-headed race with a 
narrow face, perhaps forerunners of the Neo¬ 
lithic or polished stone invasion; fifthly, the 
Furfooz or Grenelle race, very broad-headed, 
entering Europe probably from central Asia, 
bringing the Azilian industry already developed. 
There may have been other races. All of this 
happened in the last 25,000 years. 

During Aurignacian times, France was still 
connected with England by a broad land high- * 
way; the British Isles were united to each 
other. The Aurignacian life, which was chiefly 
Cro-Magnon, centered in grottoes or caverns. 
Throughout western Europe the climate was 
still dry and chilly; in the Postglacial period, 
now commencing, there were three Postglacial 
advances of the Alps ice-caps, although there 
was no great glacial period. In addition to the 
caverns, there were a few notorious open camps, 
such as the one at Solutre, the fafnous hunting 


50 


THE STONE AGE 


station for wild horse, which gave its name to 
the Solutrean culture. The remains of 100,000 
skeletons of horses have been located here. 
These wild horses here and elsewhere were not 
bred and reared by men, as far as the evidence 
goes; they were hunted for food. It was the 
far East, not Europe, which discovered that the 
horse could be used as a beast of burden. 

In 1823 the first Cro-Magnon skeleton was 
discovered, in the Paviland cave, in western 
Wales. The bones were stained red. This was 
long called the “Red Lady”; it is identified 
now as a Cro-Magnon male. In 1852, seventeen 
skeletons were discovered at Aurignac, in 
France; these gave the name to the culture. 
In 1868, in Cro-Magnon, in the Dordogne, 
France, portions of five skeletons were un¬ 
earthed; these gave the name to the race. A 
number of subsequent discoveries have been 
made, including the fourteen skeletons in the 
Grimaldi grottoes. The race was exceptionally 
tall; the face was broad, the eye-orbits long 
and narrow; the skull was long and large, with 
marked brain capacity, indicating that here 
was a high racial type belonging to Homo 
sapiens. The head is disharmonic, that is, long 
and at the same time broad across the face. 
The upper part of the face is almost vertical, 
as in modern races. The men of this race 
varied from 5 feet 11 inches to 6 feet 4; the 
women were noticeably shorter. With an aver¬ 
age male height well over six feet, it may well 
be said that “there were giants in those days.” 
The shin-bones were long, indicating fleetness 
of foot. The flattened form of this bone indi- 


THE STONE AGE SI 

e:.ies that the men were used to squatting, 
while engaged in industrial occupations. The 
ung leg and strong thigh bone are both typical 
oi a hunting race. The shoulders were broad, 
the arms relatively short. The race, with a 
cranial capacity avering 1,800 c. cm., was on© 
of the finest that the world has ever seen. 
The appearance of the face most resembles 
tribes living today north and south of the 
Himalayas. The characteristics were definitely 
Asiatic rather than African. 

In 1909 O. Hauser discovered, in the shelter 
of Combe-Capelle, a skeleton which has been 
called the Aurignacian man. The height is only 
5 feet 3 inches. In many characteristics it re¬ 
sembles the Cro-Magnon; and, until further evi¬ 
dence is adduced, it may be best included as a 
transition type of the Cro-Magnons. 

The burial customs during the Aurignacian 
times were decidedly quaint. The use of color 
to paint the skeletons, as in the Paviland skele¬ 
ton found in Wales, is characteristic. The 
Grimaldi infant skeletons are not colored, but 
are accompanied by a vast number of small 
perforated shells, evidently forming a sort of 
burial mantle. The female skeleton here was 
wrapped in a bed of unperforated shells; the 
legs were extended, the arms stretched beside 
the body. One of the large male skeletons had 
legs extended and arms folded, and was decor¬ 
ated with a crown of perforated shells. An¬ 
other rested on its left side, with the limbs 
slightly flexed, the forearm folded, and the head 
decorated with a circle of perforated stones 
colored red. Other skeletons have been found 


52 


THE STONE AGE 


in a layer of red earth containing iron; two 
of these skeletons rest on the left side, the 
limbs extended or slightly flexed, and with 
shells in abundance surrounding the forehead, 
chest, and one limb. The ornaments, weapons, 
and, in some cases, food placed beside these 
bodies, indicated some sort of belief in sur¬ 
vival of existence. The use of color points to 
its probable use as a decoration for the bodies 
while alive. 

The Aurignacian marks the beginning of 
definite art. The art products of this and suc¬ 
ceeding ages range from the primitive mam¬ 
moth. painted in red ochre in the cavern of 
Pindal, showing only two limbs, to the exquis¬ 
ite tinted bisons on the ceiling of Altamira, 
Spain, representing a high stage of art, in 
which four colors were used. There were draw¬ 
ings in all stages of completion, and carved 
figurines in Talc, limestone, and. soapstone. 
Elaborate carvings were made on reindeer 
horn. Human skulls were shaped into drinking 
cups. There is a marked similarity between 
the human figures and primitive African art, 
which lends color to the theory that the Cro- 
Magnon people traveled along the north shore 
of Africa, bringing with them the Aurignacian 
industry, which may have been modified along 
the route by contact with African sources. 
Small carved figures similar to the Aurignacian, 
especially representations of the female form, 
are found in baked clay along the valley of the 
Nile. These figurines have in common the 
great development of the parts connected with 
maternity, and in some cases a headdress simi- 


THE STONE AGE 


.53 


lar to early Egyptian art. There are many 
silhouettes of hands on the walls of these 
grottoes, of which a large number are mutil¬ 
ated in one or more fingers. 

Above the Aurignacian culture came the 
Solutrean. In the west of Europe, during this 
period, were the Cro-Magnons; in the east, were 
the men of Brunn. In 1871 a skullcap was 
discovered at Brux, in Bohemia; in 1891 a 
skeleton, evidently belonging to the same race, 
was discovered at Brunn, in Moravia, deeply 
embedded. These are of a much lower type 
than the Cro-Magnons; but, differing sharply 
from the Neanderthals, are entitled to be re¬ 
garded as members of Homo sapiens. The 
Predmost “mammoth hunters,” remains of 
twenty of whom were excavated in 1880 in 
Moravia, also belong to this race. The Solu¬ 
trean industry, carried on by both Brunn and 
Cro-Magnon men, brought to its highest devel¬ 
opment the art of chipping flints. The famous 
laurel-leaf points, thin and exquisitely shaped, 
are characteristic of this culture. This cul¬ 
ture apparently came from the east, from Asia, 
just as the Aurignacian apparently entered Eu¬ 
rope from the south, along the northern coast 
of Africa and the northern coast of the Medi¬ 
terranean. In purely artistic work this period 
does not rank as high as the Aurignacian; the 
chief energy apparently went to the fashioning 
of flint weapons. At the same time, artistic 
advance can be discovered. 

The Solutrean was succeeded by the Magda- 
lenean period, the most fascinating of all the 
stages of the Old Stone Age. This period marks 


54 THE STONE AGE 

the height of Paleolithic civilization; it marks 
the crest of the development of the Cro-Mag¬ 
nons, prior to their sudden decline and disap¬ 
pearance as the dominant type in western Eu¬ 
rope. The men of this time are commonly 
known as the Magdaleneans, taking their name 
from the typical culture station of La Made¬ 
leine, France. The period probably reached 
from 16,000 B. C. onward. There are elab¬ 
orately decorated javelin points of hone, fitted 
for attachment to a wooden shaft. The art of 
the period is the culmination of the art begun 
in the Aurignacian and continued through the 
Solutrean. We find numberless representations 
both of individual animals and of herds. Most 
frequently the subjects chosen were the bison, 
mammoth, wild horse, reindeer, wild cattle, 
deer, and rhinoceros; less often the ibex, wild 
boar, and wolf appear; there are hardly ever 
pictures of fishes or of plant life. We find 
the lion and the bear, but not the hyena, now 
disappearing from Europe. The elaborate 
carved wands, made of reindeer horn, point to 
a tribal organization. It is possible that the 
tribesmen were specialized into chieftains, 
priests, and medicine men, hunters, fishermen, 
flintworkers, hide-dressers, makers of clothing 
and footwear, makers of ornaments, engravers, 
sculptors in wood, bone; ivory, and stone, art¬ 
ists with color and brush, and numerous other 
pursuits. A strong sense of truth animated 
their artistic work, as well as a distinct feel¬ 
ing for beauty. 

The human remains of the time are predomi¬ 
nantly Cro-Magnon, of a modified type. The 


THE STONE AGE 55 

height of the race has grown much less; this 
may have been due to the severe climatic con¬ 
ditions of the Postglacial Era. New features 
creep into the burial ceremony, such as the sep¬ 
aration of the head from the body. Elaborate 
bone harpoons, at first barbed on one side only, 
later on both sides, have been found widespread. 
Flint blades with toothed edges, elaborate bone 
needles, are often located; but toward the end 
of the period, the workmanship of these degen¬ 
erates. But no primitive art has touched the 
Magdalenean at its height. Herds are pic¬ 
tures, with detailed study of the first and last 
animal, and symbolic horns or heads for the 
remainder. There are elaborate frescoes, show¬ 
ing great processions of mammoths, bison, rein¬ 
deer, and horse. The cavern of Altamira, in 
northern Spain, is in many ways the most re¬ 
markable of all the Magdalenean stations. 

And then there was a sudden decline. We 
cannot with any certainty fix upon the cause; 
the psychic circle of growth, maturity, and de¬ 
cline, may have run its course. There is no 
distinct environmental alteration, which can be 
held responsible. The race did not disappear; 
it apparently broke up into many colonies, 
which can perhaps be traced through Neolithic 
and even recent times. The shape of the Cro- 
Magnon head, long and with a broad face, the 
type known as disharmonic, is still found in 
the region around Dordogne, France, today. 
These people are not degenerate in any par¬ 
ticular; they are keen and alert. It is quite 
possible that these people of Dordogne today 
represent by far the oldest race living in west- 


56 


THE STONE AGE 


ern Europe; it is a significant fact that the 
oldest speech spoken in Europe, the Basque 
among the northern Pyrenees, is spoken near 
by, within two hundred miles. Authorities sug 
gest a possible connection between the Basque 
language, different from all the other tongues 
of Europe, and the vanished language of the 
Cro-Magnons. Ripley suggests that it is not in¬ 
conceivable that the ancestors of the Basques 
conquered the Cro-Manons dwelling there, anrf 
took over in whole or in part their ancient 
speech. 

Among other localities where the skulls re¬ 
semble the Cro-Magnon are certain portions 
of Thuringia, and the recently extinct race of 
Guanches of the Canary Islands. Such skulls 
have been discovered in northern Africa, among 
living Berbers. But the chief centers of mod¬ 
ern heads resembling the Cro-Magnons are the 
EJordogne region, at Landes near the Garonne 
in southern France, at Lannion in Brittany, 
where a third of the population are of the Cro- 
Magnon type, and on the island of Oleron off 
the west coast of France. Perhaps the inhab¬ 
itants of Trysil, on the Scandinavian penin¬ 
sula, who show the same disharmonic features, 
are an offshoot of the Cro-Magnons. 

It may be worth while to look for a moment 
at the vanished Guanches of the Canary Is¬ 
lands, who were conquered by Spain in the 15th 
Century. The average height was over six feet 
for the males, and less for the females. The 
heads had points of resemblance to the Cro- 
Magnons. The offensive weapons in warfare 
consisted of three stones, a club, and several 


THE STONE AGE 


57 


stone knives; the defensive weapon was a sim¬ 
ple lance. They also used wooden swords with 
great skill. They lived in large, well-sheltered 
caverns, whose walls were always decorated. 
The ceilings were covered with red ochre, the 
sidewalls with various geometric designs in red, 
black, gray, and white. Hollowea-out stones 
served as lamps. Here is surely evidence of 
kinship to the vanished Cro-Magnons. 


THE STONE AGE 


CHAPTER VII 


END OF THE OLD STONE AGE 

We have now reached the end of the Old 
Stone Age, a period some 9,000 or 12,000 years 
ago. Certain new races entered Europe, and 
played a part in the downfall of the tall art¬ 
ists. Two new races found their way along 
the Danube, as revealed by the burials at Ofnet, 
in eastern Bavaria. One of these is broad¬ 
headed and apparently from central Asia, the 
other long-headed and perhaps of Mediterran¬ 
ean origin. These races had a relatively high 
brain development. The first of these is called 
the Furfooz-Grenelle race; the second was 
probably a Mediterranean race, not related to 
the Brunn. This latter race, or still another 
Mediterranean race, also entered Europe from 
north Africa, into Spain; it is distinguished 
by conventionalized art. There may have been 
another race, perhaps ancestral to the Teu¬ 
tonic, coming along the shores of the Baltic. 
These races correspond to the Azilian culture, 
which closed the Paleolithic Age. Its art is 
marked by numerous flattened and painted 
pebbles, whose use is problematical, in spite of 
many ingenious theories; the flints are a de¬ 
generate type of Magdalenean stonework. 
There are as yet no polished stone implements. 
The ceremonial burial at Ofnet is one of the 
Grange exhibits of this period. 

Here was found a ceremonial burial of thirty- 


THE STONE AGE 


59 


three skulls of two distinct races, one short¬ 
headed, one long-headed, and neither related to 
the Cro-Magnons. Twenty-seven of these were 
embedded in ochre and arranged in a sort of nest, 
with the faces all looking westward. The in¬ 
ner skulls were crushed, as if the outer ones 
had been added from time to time. A yard 
away a nest of six more skulls was found, ar¬ 
ranged in the same manner. The interment 
must have taken place just after death, for the 
lower jaws and some of the neck vertebrae were 
found with each skull. The heads had been 
severed from the necks by a sharp flint; its 
marks were visible on some of the vertebrae. 
These skulls were mainly of women and chil¬ 
dren; only four were adult males. Ingenious 
theories have been offered to explain this, rang¬ 
ing from cannibalism to captivity and blood 
sacrifice. But the presence of ornaments, and 
the novel arrangement of heads facing west¬ 
ward, indicate that these theories must be held 
in abeyance until further evidence is discov¬ 
ered. 

This is the first burial in Europe (with the 
possible exception of Grimaldi) which presents 
two or more races. 

The broad-headed race here is probably kin 
to the late Paleolithic race known as the Fur- 
fooz-Grenelle men. In 1867, in a cave near 
Furfooz, Belgium, sixteen skeletons were dis¬ 
covered. These were short-headed men. The 
Grenelle skulls, found near Paris, are prob¬ 
ably Neolithic; but this is no reason for deny¬ 
ing them kinship with the Furfooz race, whom 
they closely resemble. The bulk of the evidence 


60 


THE STONE AGE 


points to their migration from central Asia. 

The narrow-headed Mediterranean race is an¬ 
other matter; they probably came from the 
south. At about the same time, the retreat of 
the northern icefield permitted a migration 
along the shores of the Baltic, which may have 
been the advance wave of the Teutonic peo¬ 
ples. They are known today only by their in¬ 
dustries; no skeletons have as yet been dis¬ 
covered. Their art was entirely unconvention¬ 
alized, and much cruder than the Cro-Magnon 
art. It is probably contemporaneous with the 
Azilian culture in the south. 

The brain capacity of these various races 
may be compared in a table: 

TABLE OF BRAIJ4 CAPACITIES 


Brain Capacity 
c. cm. 


Recent European (average) 

1400-1500 

Of net race (short-headed) 

1400 

Of net race (long-headed) 

1500 

Cro-Magnon (average) 

1800 

Grimaldi race (negroid) 

1580 

Brunn race . 

1350 

Neanderthal race 

1296-1723 

Piltdown race 

1400 

Trinil race (Ape-man) 

950 

Apes (maximum) 

600 


There is no evidence for the migration routes 
of the earlier races—although their cultures 
point to a southerly entrance, in the cases of 
the Trinil, Piltdown, Heidelberg, and Neander¬ 
thal men. Industrial evidence points to the 
north African route as the path of the Cro-Mag- 


THE STONE AGE 


61 


nons; the Grimaldi negroids came from the 
same direction. The succeeding culture, the 
Solutrean, apparently came from the east, as 
did the Brunn race which followed. Toward 
the close of the Upper Old Stone Age we find 
another southerly or Mediterranean invasion; 
during the same period there is the Furfooz- 
Grenelle approach from the East, and perhaps 
the Baltic from the north. 

Whether the Neolithic or polished stone 
workers suddenly appeared and overcame the 
chipped stone wielders, or whether these grad¬ 
ually filtered in, science cannot now with cer¬ 
tainty answer. It is certain that the men us¬ 
ing the polished stones appeared in France, 
then in the Swiss lake region, where they built 
their lake-dwellings on high piles driven into 
the lake-bed. Along with the disappearing 
chipped stone implements we find more and 
more made of polished stone. Agriculture be¬ 
gan, together with implements for preparing 
the soil and harvesting the crops. Nomadic 
life began to be abandoned, in favor of more 
settled dwellings. Even more distinctive is 
the appearance of pottery, used first in the 
preparation and preservation of food. The art 
began over with crude naturalistic drawings. 
Man had entered upon another upward step in 
his slow progress from his lowly ancestry. 

Thus we have seen the Old Stone Age in its 
entirety, its beginning, its height, and its de¬ 
cline. It has been read from the slow carving 
of vast natural forces, glaciers and seas, upon 
the ancient rocky skeleton of the earth; it has 
been deciphered from the scattered remains of 


62 THE STONE AGE 

tree apes and ground apes, from ape-men, 
dawn men, and true men; it has been pieced to¬ 
gether from the rude implements fashioned out 
of this same stone by these early workers. 
Man has as yet read hardly the first page of 
the great Record of the Rocks. The fascinat¬ 
ing task of perusing the rest of the record is 
still before us. 


LITTLE BLUE BOOK SERIES 63 

Other Little Blue Books 


Drama 

295 Master Builder. Ibsen. 
90 Mikado. Gilbert. 

31 Peileas and Melisande 
Maeterlinck. 

316 Prometheus. Aeschylos. 
308 Stoops to Conquer 
Goldsmith. 

134 Misanthrope. Moliere. 
16 Ghosts. Ibsen. 

80 Pillars of Society 
Ibsen. 

46 Salome. Wilde. 

54 Importance of Being 
Earnest. Wilde. 

8 Lady Windermere’s 
Fan. Wilde. 

131 Redemption. Tolstoy. 

99 Tartuffe. Moliere. 

226 The Anti-Semites. 
Sehnitzler. 

Shakespeare’s Plays 

359 The Man Shakespeare. 
Vol. 1 Frank Harris 

360 The Alan Shakespeare. 
Vol. 2. Harris. 

361 The Alan Shakespeare. 
Vol. 3. Harris. 

302 The Alan Shakespeare. 
Vol. 4. Harris. 

240 The Tempest. 

241 Merry Wives Windsor. 

242 As You Like It. 

2 43 Twelfth Night. 

244 Much Ado Nothing. 

245 Measure for Measure 

246 Hamlet. 

247 Alacbeth. 

248 King Henry V. 

249 Julius Caesar. 

2 50 Romeo and Juliet. 


251 Midsummer Night’s 

252 Othello. 

253 King Henry VIII. 

254 Taming of Shrew. 

255 King Lear. 

256 Venus and Adonis. 

257 King Henry IV. 

Part I 

258 King Henry IV. 

Part II. 

259 King Henry VI. 

Part I. 

260 King Henry VI. 

Part II. 

261 King Henry VI. 

Part III. 

262 Comedy of Errors. 

263 King John. 

264 King Richard III. 

265 King Richard II. 

2 67 Pericles. 

268 Merchant of Venice. 

Fiction 

307 Tillyloss Scandal. 
Barrie. 

331 Finest Story in the 
World. Kipling. 

357 City of the Dreadful 
Night. Kipling. 

363 Higgles and Other 
Stories. Harte. 

377 A Night in the Lux¬ 
embourg. Remy 
De Gourmont. 

336 The Alark of the 
Beast. Kipling. 

333 Mulvaney Stories. 
Kipling. 

188 Adventures of Baron. 
Munchausen. 

352 Short Stories. Win. 
Alorris. 



64 LITTLE BLUE 

339 Thoreau—the Man 
Who Escaped From 
the Herd. 

126 History of Rome. Giles. 

128 Julius Caesar’s Life. 

185 History of Printing. 

149 Historic Crimes. 

Finger. 

175 Science of History 
Froude. 

104 Waterloo. Hugo. 

52 Voltaire. Hugo. 

125 War Speeches of 
Wilson. 

22 Tolstoy. Life and Wks. 

142 Bismarck’s Life. 

286 When Puritans Ruled. 

343 Life of Columbus. 

66 Crimes of Borgias. 
Dumas. 

287 Whistler: The Man 
and His Work. 

51 Life of Bruno. 

147 Cromwell and His 
Times. 

236 Heart Affairs Henry 
VIII. 

50 Paine’s Common Sense. 

88 Vindication of Paine. 
Ingersoll. 

33 Brann: Sham Smasher. 

163 Life in Greece and 
Rome. 

214 Speeches of Lincoln. 

276 Speeches of Washing¬ 
ton. 

144 Was Poe Immoral? 

223 Essay on Swinburne. 

150 Lost Civilizations. 

227 Keats. The Man and 
His Work. 

170 Constantine and Be¬ 
ginnings of Chris¬ 
tianity. 

201 Satan and the Saints. 

67 Church History. 

169 Voices From the Past. 

266 Life of Shakespeare. 


BOOK SERIES 

123 Life of Du Barry. 

13 9 Life of Dante. 

69 Life of Mary, Queen 
of Scots. 

5 Life of Johnson. 
Macaulay. 

174 Trial of William Penn. 

Humor 

291 Jumping Frog. Twain. 

18 Idle Thoughts. Jerome. 
166 English as She Is 
Spoke. Twain. 

231 Humorous Sketches. 
Twain. 

205 Artemus Ward. His 
Book. 

187 Whistler’s Humor 
216 Wit of Heine. Eliot. 
20. Let’s Laugh. Nasby. 

Literature 

442 Oscar Wilde in Outline. 
Finger. 

305 Machiavelli. Lord 
Macaulay. 

358 Virginibus Puerisque. 
Stevenson. 

431 Literary Stars on 
Scandinavian Fir¬ 
mament. Moritzen. 

435 Hundred Best Books. 
Powys. 

109 Dante and Other 
Waning Classics. 

Vol. 1. Mordell. 

110 Dante and Other 
Waning Classics 
Vol. 2. Mordell. 

349 An Apology for Idlers, 
Stevenson. 

355 Aucassin and Nicolete. 
Lang. 

278 Friendship, etc. 
Thoreau. 

195 Nature. Thoreau. 

220 England in Shake¬ 
speare’s Time. Finger. 








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